Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State Essay Example

Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State Essay This paper will in the first instance define the term, Hollowing Out Of The State, as Rhodes presented it in 1994. The origins of the hollowing out process related to contemporary policy process in Britain will be outlined followed by a summary of the themes and consequences identified by the author. Alternative perspectives on the theme of hollowing out will be contrasted in an attempt to assess the validity of the claim that government in Britain is being hollowed out. In his essay concerning the hollowing out process, Rhodes is concerned with the erosion of British public sector provision within government and the fact that erosion has taken place from within government itself through a process of delegation, decentralisation and privitisation. In order to understand the main themes of hollowing out, it is important to understand the origins and impetus, which created the need for change. Although there is a long history of transition and alteration to the British system of political administration, the contemporary process of hollowing out can be reasonably traced to the election of the New Right government and Mrs. Thatcher in 1979. We will write a custom essay sample on Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer During this period, the institutions of social democracy were under severe pressure throughout the 1970s. Through growing power of pressure groups such as Trade Unions, Internal pressures within the Union from the troubles of Northern Ireland and the failed devolution bill in Scotland. On an international basis, the global economy made a contribution to Britains decline in the shape of soaring interest rates, high inflation and massive government expenditure. Spending by central government in the late 70s rose to approximately 43% of GDP. The country moved toward a position of ungovernability and near bankruptcy. As a consequence, government lost the confidence of the electorate and in these circumstances Mrs. Thatcher was elected in 1979. The Conservative government would embark upon a programme aiming to reduce the interfering role of the Nanny State, cut unnecessary waste, overspending and create the wealth needed to return the country to stability. On taking office, the Conservatives intended to reduce the number of unelected bodies but political circumstance did not permit such a response. Mrs. Thatcher was unable to delegate responsibilities from central to local government because of the latters domination by left wing opponents. One nation ideology prevented the use of devolution whilst the confrontational and disruptive melee of Westminster could also disrupt the progress needed to deliver reform. This meant that to some extent, Mrs. Thatcher was forced to look to quasi government and reform of the civil service in order to enact her programme. The difficulty facing the government during this period is highlighted by Gamble (1994). Success depended upon a party pledged to a New Right agenda first obtaining a mandate to reform in a political market corrupted by decades of state intervention, and then carrying it through with the assistance of agencies of the extended state p39 The mandate for the New Right was given in the general election victory in 1979, allowing Thatcher to initiate a programme to restore the authority of government and expand the agencies of the extended state. It is the consequences of this programme which create the main themes and features of hollowing out. Rhodes provides four trends which characterise the transition which took place; 1. Privitisation and limiting the scope and forms of public intervention. 2. The loss of functions by central and local government departments to alternative service delivery (such as agencys). 3. The loss of functions by British Governments to European Union institutions. 4. Limiting the discretion of public servants through the new public management, with its emphasis on managerial accountability, and sharper distinction between politics and administration. P139 Amongst the principle aims of the Conservative government was stopping the state from being involved in every aspect of peoples lives and to reduce the physical bulk of government. This was done in two ways: firstly, through a programme of privitisation, notable in the form of release from government of major utilities and industries such as Coal, Gas, Shipbuilding, Steel, Electricity and Telecommunications. Secondly, through rationalisation at administrative and operational level involving comprehensive review and the introduction of new management techniques. First of all by reviewing where efficiencies could be made and identifying the areas of government to be reduced or transferred to quasi government and privitisation. Harold Wilsons Labour governments of the 1960s began the process but the Thatcher government brought it into central government and greatly extended it. Areas of departmental responsibility first effected by changes included cleansing and catering. In addition to the effect on central departments, this also reduced the influence and responsibility of local authorities whilst validating cuts in their annual budgets. The role of local authorities were being transformed from that of major employer and service provider to one of overseer and enabler as Rhodes points out, The role of local government is to facilitate the delivery of services by others and oversee performance p241 Further reductions in local authority remit effected departments of Housing, Education, Parks Recreation and Direct Works to name a few, altering their position in the community. Much of the power and responsibility of all government departments was dissipated. Rhodes goes on to explain that, as the government sought to release responsibility internally, the relationship evolving with the European Community proved to be the opposite. It is generally recognised that Britain has been the reluctant member of the European Community over the duration of membership. However, in relation to hollowing out, Europe has the effect of eroding the sovereign powers of the British parliamentary system and contributing to fragmentation of the policy making process across the country. As the major agreements made within the European Union grow in significance towards full integration, the central position of authority of Westminster in continually undermined. In addition, the European Unions commitment to the principle of regional representation through subsiduarity also reduces Westminster as a centre of power. This is evident in the potential for access to new policy networks open to the assemblies of Wales and Scotland as they build recognition of Brussels as equal or superior to London. It could be argued that amongst the most significant changes in the reform process are those related to new managerialism in the civil service which will limit the discretion of public service. These developments were initiated with the appointment of Derek Raynor from industry in order to audit government departments and services. The aim was to reduce costs by pursuing the three Es of efficiency, economy and effectiveness. It would begin the process of moving civil servants from administration of policy to management of implementation. Each department would produce individual plans of action with specific objectives designed to meet targets set in advance. These changes would assist the Thatcher government to politically justify strategy but the failure of reforms to deliver successful results was revealed by the review process in 1988. This would lead to the implementation of the Next Steps Initiative designed to further clarify the separation of policy maker from policy implantation. Rhodes (1997) outlines the critical recommendation of the Efficiency Unit report, stating that The management revolution was only skin- deep and recommended introducing agencies to carry out the executive functions of government and bring about real financial and managerial change p95 This was a crucial point in the process of hollowing out as British governance moved from rationalisation of legitimate responsibility to extended delegation through non-elected and anonymous bodies. With this change in the nature of quasi government, Rhodes raises the question of accountability and control. The development of new agencies to cover an expanding list of government practice caused fragmentation throughout the policy network and difficulties in maintaining adequate channels of communication between relevant actors. Rhodes cites Hesse to illustrate the difficulties arising in this regard, Advocates of decentralised self guidance and control often fail to realise that highly differentiated and pluralistic fragmented institutional systems create a growing need for collective steering, planning and consensus building 146 The Next Steps initiative was taken in response to a lack of success of reform, an imbalance was perceived in the policy process, there was too much emphasis on political issues and not enough on policy implementation. The consequence was the creation of agencies with greater autonomy from government to implement policy outcomes. These agencies needed to be as diverse as the departments they served, covering such aspects as stationary, defense, health, fire safety, coastguard, social security, employment or child support for example. Rather than achieving previously unmet targets, Rhodes argues that the opposite was more likely. The National Health Service for example, has always been at the forefront of government reform. However in recent months the government has entered into agreements with private health care trusts to utilise spare capacity to compensate for continuing overload in the NHS. There are grounds to suggest that the difficulties incurred in 1979 are being incurred in 2000. These difficulties are potentially duplicated across the breadth of the policy network. The lack of adequate measures to ensure communication and co-operation increase innefiency and waste, in addition because the legislative process undertaken has been so complex, the drive for efficiency and cost cutting diminishes the room for maneuver within government departments or ministers. Rhodes highlights the problem as follows; Such networks restrict who contributes to policy making and policy implementation. They routinise the policy process. They are also a form of private government. P148 In the latter point, Rhodes highlights a crucial outcome from the proliferation of agencies, accountability. If responsibility for implementation of government policy is too diverse then accountability and control are confused and disparate. The most notable example of confusion was highlighted by BBC 2s Newsnight, when Jeremy Paxman attempted to clarify the role of Home Secretary Michael Howard in the sacking of Derek Lewis who was Chief Executive of the Prison Service when high profile prisoners escaped from prison. It could be argued that little has changed when observing the recent debacle in the Scottish Executive over the delivery of examination results by the Scottish Qualifications Authority. Resignations have taken place from the agency whilst the minister responsible has moved to a new post. Accountability for politicians have shifted, they no longer resign, instead, they attend select committee hearings. The accountability and control of the policy process from parliament itself has been undermined. Rhodes uses the example of the dissolution of the Greater London Council to illustrate the point, Under the Greater London Council (GLC), rate payers paid their rates to four bodies. After abolition of the GLC, they paid taxes to 17 bodies, two thirds of which are unelected p148 Similar example exists in the case of Strathclyde Regional Council, which was dismantled on ideological grounds but in doing so further weakened democratic accountability. The concluding themes of the hollowing out are concerned with such consequences. The changes made in extending networks beyond the reach of their optimum productivity illustrates a transition from government problem solving, to government as the creator of political crisis. The process moved from necessary rationalisation of overloaded government to the creation of over extended and less controllable quasi government in the form of non-elected agencies. The original measures taken to cut costs and achieve greater efficiencies create the lack of experience and knowledge. Competition for contracts equates to the loss of quality and priorities based upon survival of the fittest. The problem set out in the beginning has not been diminished, as there is still evidence of overload. This is supported by Foster and Plowden (1996) when they state that, Activities have been transferred from local government to centrally appointed and directly appointed bodies, and the creation of arms-length agencies within central government has perversely, involved ministers more in their affairs. And ministers are more directly involved in policy formulation than before p219 Rhodes offers three main reasons behind the argument for a return to bureaucracy as a potential solution to the problems caused by hollowing out. Firstly return to balance rather than fragmentation, secondly, public sector record of delivery is as good as private sector and has better flexibility in meeting problems and challenges and thirdly in order to restore accountability and democracy to the policy process in government. Overall, hollowing out illustrates a process that has created less accountable and less effective, reduced government than previous systems. The difficulties of quasi government outweigh the benefits in terms of the problems which reforms set out to solve. In Rhodes view, the private sector is not the fix all that Mrs. Thatcher in particular said it would be. Beneath the veneer on of the British political landscape, the same issues apply in 2000, which existed in 1979. There are alternative views to the hollowing out process; the following section of this paper will attempt to highlight a selection of key points. Michael Seaward outlines an alternative view of what was arguably the most visable and significant programme undertaken by Mrs. Thatcher and highlighted in hollowing out: Privitisation, Decentralisation and Agencification. The achievements of the Conservative governments programme of privitisation were significant, creating major industries in global markets such as BT in telecommunications for example. However many of the privitised industries have led a much more troubled existence. The British coalfield is almost gone altogether, in recent weeks the lack of progress in the rail privitisation has come to the fore along with those of the water companies. The possibility should be considered that the motivations of the Thatcher privitisations were not only concerned with the difficulties of overload but also with the achievement of ideological change. Nationalisation was strongly associated with party allegiance in Britain; the move toward privitisation would create a fundamental change in the relationship between the electorate and the role of government. This is highlighted by Seaward (1997) when he states that, In majoritarian systems, privitisation may appear to be the hollowing out of the state but this trend can equally be interpreted in terms of core actors rationally reshaping the state to suit some of their primary ends (such as power, autonomy, protection from direct responsibility). P22 Privitisation serves two ends, firstly, to serve to lessen the overload on central government departments and ministers and secondly, to alter the perception of the electorate in relation to the role of government. Similarly, decentralisation as it is presented in the hollowing out does not appear to consider the consequences of an approach concerned with ideological change. The avoidance or negation of local authority responsibility was concerned with the confrontation of opposition as much as it was an attempt to reallocate resources and services. The transfer of responsibilities not only decreased the bulk of government but also dismantled a significant vehicle for the adversaries of the Thatcher project. This is also supported by Seaward (1997) when he cites King: The aim of these reforms is to marginalise local government as a political institution by creating local agencies to deliver policy and by denuding its representative function. P23 On the final theme of Agencification, Seaward focuss on the scope for interpretation of reform and the importance of the role of the minister in policy process rather than bureaucratic administration. When this separation was attempted, clear roles were identified for the politicians as representative, the civil servant or department as administrator and the arms length agency in the delivery mode of policy implementation In terms of Britains role within the European Community, the case for the loss of sovereignty is a strong one. There is general agreement concerning the potential for Westminster to become secondary to the dealings of Brussels and its policy networks, as Gray (2000) confirms, In the case of increasing European Union involvement in the internal affairs of the state imply not so much a hollowing out of the state as an effective by pass of it altogether in some areas of policy and administration. The extension of qualified majority voting in the council of ministers extends the possibility of being by passed. P228 Once again this view is correct from a particular perspective but does not take into account the interdependence of the European Union at its centre with the member organisations, which give it life. Britain enters into negotiation with all other partners and retains the power of veto in important areas. Once again a consideration of ideological preference is necessary. This is evident in the Labour governments moves toward partial incorporation in the social charter which was resisted throughout the life of the Conservative government. In terms of the administration of government, all issues in either Brussels or London do not effect each institution in equal measure. Rather than Europe swamping or negating British government, there is an argument for mutual accommodation, illustrated by Smith (1999), Departments have attempted to integrate the EU throughout the department rather than concentrate it within a European co-ordination body as used to be the case. P242 The description of the hollowing out of the state, might better read as the redistribution of parliament and within the policy network, the restructuring of design, administration, delivery, evaluation and financing of the policy process. The arguments for and against the hollowing out process are strongly influenced by the perspective of the observer, the interpretations of the state and its mechanisms. After all of the change which has been undertaken on an economic or strategic basis, an interventionist government still presides over all in Britain and the bulk of government has not decreased. This view is supported by Smith (1999) when he states that, The government has continued to regulate the privitised monopolies, there has been little reduction in the level of public expenditure, and it has intervened greatly in the reforms of health and education, (Richardson, 1993). In other words, the state has been reshaped rather than hollowed out. P205 Here is the crux of the issue; much of the bulk of government, which was, portrayed as such a danger by Mrs. Thatcher in 1979 remains largely intact. Privitisation and quangocracies have not lessened the extent of government; rather they have helped to dismantle it to be put back together in a different order. This is evident in the move to the centre, if not the right of the political spectrum by the Labour Party in order to regain power. It could be argued that Mrs. Thatcher failed in her political aims of reduced government and strong state but was highly successful in her attempt to alter the ideological perspective of the British political landscape. She has ensured that the devide between the pragmatic actions of the conservatives and the collective actions of the socialists has been drastically reduced. The determining factor in this change is leadership and this is supported by Smith (1999) when he states that, leaders often have legitimacy, and the electoral and parliamentary support, to take to take authoritative decisions and therefor to orient the policy directions of networks p243 The conclusion of this paper is that bearing in mind, the significance of an ideological origin to the process, there is strong evidence that the hollowing out of the state has and is continuing to take place. However it is doing so in conjunction with the restructuring of parliamentary structure and continuous adjustment of the actors and responses within the policy network. Only in this fuller sense can the hollowing out of the state be applied to the evolution of the policy process in Britain. What has remained constant or grown in strength throughout this process are the executors of power in the core of government. Although lines of accountability remain, the likelihood of recrimination for wrongdoing has become more unlikely and this is a cause for concern for the future. Both the hollowing out of the state and the strengthening of the core executive remain a matter of ongoing process.

Use a Function as a Parameter in Another Function

Use a Function as a Parameter in Another Function In Delphi, procedural types (method pointers) allow you to treat procedures and functions as values that can be assigned to variables or passed to other procedures and functions. Heres how to call a function (or procedure) as a parameter of another function (or procedure) : Declare the function (or procedure) that will be used as a parameter. In the example below, this is TFunctionParameter.Define a function that will accept another function as a parameter. In the example below this is DynamicFunction type   Ã‚   TFunctionParameter function(const value : integer) : string;...function One(const value : integer) : string;begin   Ã‚   result : IntToStr(value) ; end;function Two(const value : integer) : string;begin   Ã‚   result : IntToStr(2 * value) ; end;function DynamicFunction(f : TFunctionParameter) : string;begin   Ã‚   result : f(2006) ; end;...//Example usage: var   Ã‚   s : string; begin   Ã‚   s : DynamicFunction(One) ;   Ã‚   ShowMessage(s) ; //will display 2006   Ã‚   s : DynamicFunction(Two) ;   Ã‚   ShowMessage(s) ; // will display 4012end; Important Notes Of course, you decide on the signature of the TFunctionParameter: whether it is a procedure or a function, how many parameters does it take, etc.If TFunctionParameter is a method (of an instance object) you need to add the words of object to the procedural type name, as in:TFunctionParameter function(const value : integer) : string of object;If you expect nil to be specified as the f parameter, you should test for this using the Assigned function.Fixing the Incompatible type: method pointer and regular procedure

Transportation Travel behavior Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Transportation Travel behavior - Research Paper Example The current paper focuses on the examination of the various aspects of travel behavior in transportation. Emphasis is laid on the potential use of theories developed in psychology for explaining travel attitudes. There are two key issues that have been explored through this study: a) whether travel attitudes can be measured effectively by employing theories common in psychology and b) whether psychologists support the value of travel attitude in estimating the level of travel demand, as developed in a particular market. The interaction between travel behavior and psychology is analytically explained in this study and appropriate examples are provided, where available, in order to show the role of psychology in understanding and measuring travel attitude. The methodology adopted is based on literature review. Studies published in academic literature especially journals have been used for explaining the issues. Material from books has been used to supplement the information available. Headings and sub-headings have been used with the objective of making the paper easier to be read; identification of potential gaps and arriving at suggestions of an effective solution. While developing the research in regard to the issues mentioned above the following fact is made clear: travel demand is not standardized worldwide. For this reason, the studies published in this field cannot fully substantiate the needs of the paper, in terms of research. The use of books has been considered as necessary for completing gaps that have not been covered through journals. However, omitting journals as a resource would be a mistake since the journals are mainly based on empirical research. Therefore, the combination of journal and books is considered as critical for answering the questions set in this paper. Particular reference should be made to the following fact: the studies available for examining this paper’s issues are rather limited; it is for this reason that books have be en identified along so that the credibility of the study is not threatened. 2. Transportation - Travel Behavior & Travel Attitude 2.1 Travel Behavior Starting with a brief introduction of travel behavior, travel behavior involves methods of modeling and analyzing travel demand by using analytical techniques and theories derived from various fields (Goulias, 2000)1. It is well established that under the influence of different factors individuals do not behave in an identical manner and the same holds true for their travel behaviors also. Some of the factors that play a role in influencing decision making and travel behavior are time constraints, use of space, economic considerations and the stage of life at which an individual is. Travel behavior involves study of how people use space and transportation. Travel attitude is a concept that is closely related to socio-psychology. In fact, travel attitude, as a behavioral characteristic of an individual can be fully explained using theor ies and concepts applied in psychology, and has been analyzed in detail in sections below. In this context, the

HR challenges in managing a network of high-class cafes in the United Dissertation

HR challenges in managing a network of high-class cafes in the United Kingdom - Dissertation Example It is evident from the study that unlike any other business type, in its essence hospitality business is largely dominated by human resources (HR) over any other aspect of the business. In other words, people, working in a hospitality organisation, create success of their organisation by their actions and decision. Provision of quality service is the main goal of any hospitality organisation, as service is the main product that organisations sell. At the same time, hospitality concerns service that is not mechanical, but rather human-made, hence HR Management is a definitive factor in delivering quality. In general, hospitality service is created, maintained and supplied by humans at all stages of operation, and the right HR policy is a definitive factor in this industry. All stages are equally important and provide equal contribution towards delivering quality service and hence profit. However, the degree of importance of HR is significantly higher outside the profit objectives â₠¬â€œ a right HR policy makes a business favourable to work in if we look at this from employee perspective; and also to be a customer if we consider this from consumer’s perspective. This is why HR aspect in hospitality appears as one of the most significant investments that often get overlooked or underestimated. Another significant issue in this dissertation will concern quality control. It is unclear at first glance what defines quality and the dissertation will thus analyse the crucial factors defining quality specifically for our type of business. Providing for the right interpretation and understanding of quality will be an essential component for an appropriate assessment of an HR policy. One of the most significant challenges this dissertation is going to analyse is the motivation of employees within cafe business. It is apparent that majority of hospitality industry employees consider their workplace as a temporary solution to earn money or receive some experience in non-home country. Clearly a fraction of people working in this sector are looking to develop themselves as professionals and consider working in a cafe as a worthy professional career. Motivation is the most significant challenge for most employers in this sector, and it happens that high percentages of people are getting withdrawn for being below the required work standard. High staff turnover in cafe industry is also the major concern for most business owners and there are a number of reasons for this. According to Mehta (2005), â€Å"once employed, a fifty percent chance exists that any given employee will leave their job within a year†. The first reason was mentioned above as the minimised potential dedication to work from employees. Secondly, according to Directgov website, over 70% of current workforce in the restaurant and hospitality sector is foreign citizens attracted by a high living wage of ?7.85 per hour in London. Their term of stay at one workplace is often li mited by their visa term, or other immigration obstacles, as well as the desire to experience different jobs during

Linguistics Psychology Contribution to Language Teaching

Linguistics Psychology Contribution to Language Teaching THE CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS AND PSYCHOLOGY TO LANGUAGE TEACHING Since the beginning of the 20th century investigations in the fields of psychology and lingusitics have paved the way to new concepts of language teaching. On the basis the acquired empirical evidence, linguists, researchers and scholars have developed certain methods to improve the process of child and adult language acquisition. According to Stern (1992), â€Å"One of the main features of the development of language pedagogy has been the continuous attempt to renew language teaching through changes in teaching methods† (p.6). To a great extent, these new approaches â€Å"have reflected changes in theories of the nature of language and of language learning† (Richards Rodgers, 2001 p.1). The aim of this essay is to analyse the impact of linguistics and psychology on language teaching; such an analysis has been a topic of increasing importance over the last years, as the recent reforms and educational standards are considerably based on both disciplines. These reforms a re introduced to account for individual differences of language learners and to diversify the process of language acquisition. Although many language teachers take psychology and linguistics courses in universities, only some of them can effectively apply their knowledge of psychology and linguisitics to language teaching. This inconsistency can be explained by two key factors: firstly, there are many controversies in research findings and, secondly, the received results are not tested within the classroom environment. Thus, the role of a modern language teacher is to fill the gaps between theoretical assumptions of linguists or psychologists and practical usage. Linguistics as a discipline investigates the structure of language and different processes of language acquisition. The gradual shift from structural to generative linguistics reveals the linguists’ attempts to establish a new taxonomy for language teaching. Structural linguisitics initiated by Ferdinand de Saussure (1966) at the beginning of the 20th century delves deeply into word forms and their meanings. In Brown’s (1980) viewpoint, â€Å"Structural linguistics had provided tools for dissecting language into its smallest parts and for contrasting two languages† (p.242). This school of linguistics is more interested in modern speech patterns rather than in diachronic language changes. Withdrawing from the traditional historical-descriptive analysis, structural linguistics (together with behaviouristic psychology) has challenged the efficacy of the Grammar-translation method and has generated the emergence of the Audio-Lingual Method. As Larsen-Freeman (1986) s tates, the Grammar-Translation Method prevailed in language teaching up to the middle of the 20th century. This method provides learners with an opportunity to acquire grammar and vocabulary skills; however, this is not the case with communicative skills. The fact is that the Grammar-Translation Method â€Å"views language learning as consisting of little more than memorising rules and facts† (Richards Rodgers, 2001 p.5). In light of this, the method satisfies the needs of those learners who perform standardised tests or translations, but it is inappropriate for those learners who want to speak a foreign language. In contrast to the Grammar-Translation Method, the Audio-Lingual Approach puts major focus on continual repetition of different language patterns and listening. Applying this method to language teaching, educators help learners recognise phrasal verbs and other language structures that were fully neglected in the Grammar-Translation Method. The obvious advantage of the Audio-Lingual Approach is that error correction is reduced, while motivation of learners is increased. In this approach, as Stern (2001) points out, imitation of speech is more crucial than understanding of the meaning. Although the Audio-Lingual Approach is certainly more effective for the formation of learners’ linguistic competence than the Grammar-Translation Method, it is unsuitable for the formation of learners’ communicative competence. However, in the Total Physical Response Approach proposed by Asher (1969) more heed is paid to learners’ comunicative competence. Integrating the concepts of structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology into his approach, Asher (1969) implies that both the first and second language is easily acquired if the balance between action and speech is achieved. Unlike structural linguistics, generative/transformational linguistics proposed by Noam Chomsky (1966) deals with the analysis of learners’ unconscious cognition rather than with the language production. In other words, generative linguistics specifies that there are certain natural rules with the help of which a learner constructs sentences. In the 1960-1980s the Natural Approach emerged on the basis of the concepts proposed by Chomsky (1966) and Krashen and Terrell (1983). According to Krashen and Terrell (1983), both children and adults use their innate LADs (Language Acquisition Devices) in the process of language learning. But unlike children, adults possess problem-solving skills that allow them to acquire language in conscious and unconscious ways. Two important conclusions can be drawn from theoretical assumptions of Krashen and Terrell (1983): firstly, in childhood a language is acquired, in adulthood it is learned; secondly, communication is the major element of adul t language learning. Psychology as a discipline examines the functions of the human mind and their relation to human behaviour. The move from behaviouristic to cognitive psychology in the middle of the 20th century signifies that psychologists became interested in scientific research and analyses of intellectual processes. Behaviouristic psychology supported by Skinner (1984) adheres to the idea that language teaching should be based on observations of learners’ behaviours rather than on the examination of inner factors. Seen from this viewpoint, the process of language teaching occurs under the constant control of a teacher with the minimal use of reinforcement strategies. While the behaviouristic school of psychology has inspired the use of computer-based materials in language teaching, the cognitive school of psychology has generated the spread of discovery learning programs. Cognitive psychology has contributed much to the spread of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach supported by Wid dowson (1978) and the Silent Way Approach proposed by Gattegno (1976). Special attention in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach is given to interaction, communication in a foreign language and use of authentic reading materials (Nunan, 1991). Taking into account the research on human cognition, the Silent Way Approach has changed the direction of language teaching. This approach allows learners to devise their own language hypotheses and verify their validity in practice. Unquestionably, the Silent Way Approach shapes learners’ freedom of thought and helps them â€Å"develop their own inner criteria for correctness† (Larsen-Freeman, 1986 p.62). As communication in the Silent Way Approach and the Communicative Language Teaching Approach occurs in the target language, learners’ communicative skills are formed in a rapid pace. Contrary to the Grammar-Translation Method, these approaches pay much attention to phonetics and phonology and introduce different â€Å"problem-solving activities† (Richards Rodgers, 2001 p.27). While in the Grammar-Translation Method many parallels are drawn between the native language and the target language, such parallels are not employed in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach and other recent methods. The idea of communicative competence is the core principle of other emerged methods, in particular, the Community Language Learning Method and the Suggestopaedia. These approaches reveal inconsistencies of prior methods, implying that there is a close connection between language and context. The Community Language Learning Method is quite popular in today’s language teaching due to its learner-oriented ethics. The Suggestopedia Approach concentrates on relaxation as an integral part of successful language acquisition; the widespread activity of this approach is listening to music during language lessons. Overall, all methods that have been developed under the impact of linguistics and psychology highlight group working and the use of individual approaches to every learner. Group working shapes learners’ communicative skills and problem-solving abilities; individual approaches are crucial for the formation of learners’ identities and recognition of factors that af fect language acquisition. Many variables are juxtaposed in culturally or socially diverse learning environment; hence, individual approaches allow to reveal all obstacles to language learning. Linguisitics and psychology have demonstrated that the principal goal of any teaching method is to help learners use a language in everyday situations and in different settings rather than construct gramatically-correct utterances. The Task-Based Language Teaching Approach is developed for these specific purposes. Designing versatile tasks, an educator teaches language learners to respond flexibly to the given activity and co-operate with peers. As the essay suggests, linguistics and psychology have significantly reinforced the need for efficient teaching methods. Under the impact of these disciplines, language teachers have started to experiment with approaches, making an attempt to reconcile theory with practice. The structural school of linguistics has provided educators with valuable insights on the process of language acquisition. The generative school of linguistics has revealed that language acquisition in children occurs on an unconscious level, while language acquisition in adults occurs on both conscious and unconscious levels. The behaviouristic school of psychology has reduced the importance of meaning in language acquisition, but has stimulated the implementation of computers in schools and universitites. The cognitive school of psychology has rejected settled opinions and has defined the concepts that are successfully used in teaching culturally diverse learners. Taken together, linguistics and psychology have revealed that different methods should be used in language teaching, methods that integrate such techniques as reinforcement, individual approaches and communication (Kumaravadivelu, 2003). As new teaching methods came to the fore, the role of an educator in language teaching was changed. In the Audio-Lingual Method, the Suggestopedia or the Natural Approach a teacher is treated as an instructor; contrariwise, in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach or the Community Language Learning a teacher is an assistant to language learners. Bibliography Asher, J. J. (1969) ‘The Total Physical Response Approach to Second Language Learning’. The Modern Language Journal, 53 (1), 3-17. Brown, H. D. (1980). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall Regents. Chomsky, N. (1966) Topics in the theory of generative grammar. The Hague: Mouton. Gattegno, C. (1976) The Common sense of teaching foreign languages. New York: Educational Solutions Inc. Krashen, S. Terrell, T. (1983) The Natural Approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003) Beyond methods: Macrostrategies for language teaching. New Haven, C. T.: Yale University Press. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986) Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York: Oxford University Press. Nunan, D. (1991) Language teaching methodology: A textbook for teachers. London: Prentice Hall International. Richards, J. C. Rodgers, T. S. (2001) Approaches and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. Saussure, F. de (1966) Course in General Linguistics. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Skinner, B. F. (1984) ‘The operational analysis of psychological terms’. Behavioural and brain sciences, 7 (4), 547-581. Stern, H. (1992) Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stern, H. (2001) Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H. G. (1978) Teaching language as communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Introduction to Economics

A want Is a desire for a good or a service. The desire may be to satisfy hunger or thirst, avoid heat or cold, be cured of Illness, be amused or entertained, or enjoy that latest product of technology. The item involved may not be within the means of the person who wants it. In economics it is assumed that a person's wants are unlimited. People are assumed to desire an unlimited array of goods and services. A need is a desire for a basic good or service.Needs are essential for survival. A person may not need ice cream, which is a want and a luxury, but they need food, which provides the essential vitamins and minerals. A person must satisfy their needs before they can satisfy their wants. As our income Increases many of the Items that we regarded as wants may well be regarded as needs. Most people would now regard a telephone as an essential. Characteristics of Wants Wants are unlimited because it is assumed that people have an endless desire for odds and services.Wants are competiti ve because to produce one good or service means that other goods and services are not able to be produced. Wants are changeable because a consumers desire for goods and services is constantly changing as a result of changes in income, technology, fashion, advertising etc. Some wants are complementary because the satisfaction of some wants leads to the desire for other wants: a car and trees is a good example. Finally wants can be recurrent cause they constantly have to be satisfied: For example there is a regular need for food.Goods and Services Goods are tangible objects that give people some utility or satisfaction. A service is non-material or intangible in nature. Services are provided when a business or person provides work of an intangible nature: a consultation with a doctor or lawyer for example. A tradesman that fixes a household defect is another example of a service. Services also create utility or satisfaction. Producers and Consumers A consumer is a person who uses good s and services to satisfy their wants and needs.When a consumer uses goods and services it is called consumption. Consumption means more than to eat food, It means to use any good or service to satisfy any want or need. When a consumer uses consumer goods they gain satisfaction which Is called utility. Consumers have to make choices regarding their consumption and are assumed to want to maxillae their satisfaction or utility. Consumers also need to decide how much to save. Saving is deferred consumption in

Single Parenthood: Literature Review

Single Parenthood: Literature Review2 This paper will look at the different research that has already been conducted on single parenthood. Possible research topics could be how single-parent families differ in their structure or financially, in contrast to households with two parents. Articles may also discuss the impact of single parent households on children, in terms of psychological impact, academic results, social and financial standings using statistics found in their research. By looking at articles done through American and Canadian research, it can be determined what research is missing, what the articles lack and possible suggestions to improve the substance of the materials listed. Economic Viewpoint In each article , different points were made about the financial hardships that children from single-parent households may experience and how it was much more likely they would experience them in comparison to children raised in a household with two parents. Lisa Calderwood, from London University’s Institute of Education, says, â€Å"Living apart from natural fathers can be associated with poverty and negative outcomes for children. †(Calderwood, 2010). Though not all single-parents are mothers, but Tim Casey, a senior staff attorney at Legal Momentum,( the U. S. ’ oldest organization advocating on behalf of the legal rights of women and girls. )â€Å"Employment isn’t keeping U. S. ingle parents — more than 80 percent of whom are single mothers — out of poverty. † (Casey, 2012). Here it states that not only are the majority of single parents single mothers, but that the income provided to these mothers is generally still not enough to keep them above the poverty line even though, â€Å"single mothers in the U. S. are employed more hours and yet have much higher poverty rates than their peers in other high-income countries. †(Casey, 2012). Single Parenthood: Literature Review 3 Paul Amato, a Professor of Sociology and Demography at The Pennsylvania State University, makes a good point saying due to lack of funds, â€Å"It is difficult for poor single parents to afford the books, home computers, and private lessons that make it easier for their children to succeed in school. †(Amato, 2005). This is a direct linkage with the academic success of children from single-parent families, which will be discussed later in the essay. Amato makes several good points, also saying, â€Å"they cannot afford clothes, shoes, cell phones, and other consumer goods that give their children status among their peers. (2005) Again this is in direct correlation with self-esteem issues that are more common in children raised by single parents. â€Å"Consistent with these observations, many studies have shown that economic resources explain some of the differences in well-being between children with single parents and those with continuously married parents. †(Amato, 2005). Amato makes the observation that many differences between children raised in single-parent households versus children raised with both parents can be explained by the financial difference brought on by a single income. An article stating that â€Å"Children raised by single mothers are twice as likely to misbehave as those born into traditional two-parent families† , (Paton, 2010), also says that â€Å"studies have found children raised by lone mothers are likely to have less economic security†(Calderwood, 2010)which the article implies influences the behaviour of the child raised in said type of household here: â€Å"parental qualifications and household income had a major effect on children’s behaviour at a young age, which could have â€Å"damaging long-term consequences. After looking at the findings from the different sources, it can be said that it is a fact that single-parent households are worse off financially than households with both parents. This is not only for the parents taking care of their children, but for the academic and social development of the children as stated by Amato (2005). Single Parenthood: Literature Review4 Academic Viewpoint Academically, the studies provide information which states that children from single-parent families do worse academically than those raised by both parents. They are twice as likely to drop out of high school, 2. 5 times as likely to become teen mothers, and 1. 4 times as likely to be idle. † (McLanahan , 2001). Here, Sara McLanahan states that studies have shown that children raised by single parents are more likely to drop out of high school, more likely to become teen parents and more likely to be out of school and without a job. As mentioned earlier by Paul Amato (2005), children raised by single parents cannot afford many things that could greatly benefit them in school such as â€Å"books, home computers, and private lessons. † (Amato, 2005). Paul Amato also states â€Å"In a meta-analysis of sixty-three studies of non-resident fathers and their children, Joan Gilbreth and I found that children had higher academic achievement when non-resident fathers were closely involved in their lives. † (Gilbreth & Amato, 2005). In her article, Sara McLanahan says that family disruption is not the same in all families and risk of failure in school varies among different American nationalities: â€Å"Family disruption increases the risk of school failure by 24 percentage points among Hispanics, 17 percentage points among whites, and 13 percentage points among blacks. (McLanahan, 2001). This is a pattern that is also consistent when it comes to dropping out. â€Å"Behavioural problems were less likely among children living in families with higher levels of parental qualifications. † (Calderwood, 2010) Here, Lisa Calderwood discusses behavioural problems among children raised in single-parent families, especially when it c omes to academics and found that these types of issues were more frequent in children raised by a lone parent. Single Parenthood: Literature Review5 In a chart from the National Study of Adolescent Health (1995), statistics can still show how there is a visible difference in the patterns of children raised by a lone parent, versus children raised by two. Nineteen percent of children raised by two parents had repeated a grade, compared to 30 percent of those raised by a single parent had repeated a grade, (1995). The chart shows this, as well as other categories such as, violence, delinquency, suspended, attended therapy, had smoked in the past month, attempted suicide and had thoughts of suicide. In each of the categories, the percentage of children who had done these things from a single parent household, was consistently higher than the percentages of those raised by both parents. (National Study of Adolescent Health , 1995). Emotional Nina Parry-Langdon , the author of a report done by the Department for Health and The Scottish Government, finds that â€Å"Children from broken homes are almost five times more likely to develop emotional problems than those living with both parents. †(Parry-Langdon, 2008). She specifies further to say that, â€Å"Children and young people in households of ‘reconstituted' families, particularly where there were step-children, were more likely to develop conduct disorder as were those in families which had two parents at Time 1 and one parent at Time 2. † (2008). It is important to realize that not all children that are raised by single parents, have never been raised by two parents. Here Nina points out that distress in children raised in blended families, is similar to that of children who have been through a parent’s divorce. After interviewing 5,364 children aged between five and 16 in 2004 and again last year, the researchers found that 3 per cent had developed problems over that time. †(Parry-Langdon, 2008). Again, this article makes a point to mention how quickly being Single Parenthood: Literature Review6 raised in a single-parent family can take its toll, in this case, in as little as three years’ time before con duction their second round of interviewing. From Paul Amato’s article, he states that â€Å"Interviews with children reveal that losing contact with fathers is one of the most painful outcomes of divorce. † (Amato, 2005). This shows that children are obviously impacted by the loss of contact, which can be compared to grief. Also in his article, Amato says that children from single-parent households have more exposure to stress, through many circumstances such as dealing with the financial burden, the inter-parental conflicts and in many cases having to move homes after the separation of parents. (2005) Tying in directly with stress Amato reveals, â€Å"[a study] based on a large sample of twins, found that growing up in a single-parent family predicted depression in adulthood even with genetic resemblance controlled statistically. †(Amato, 2005). This can partly be credited due to the high exposure to stress, stated above. He concludes by saying, â€Å"evidence strongly suggests that growing up without two biological parents in the home increases children's risk of a variety of cognitive, emotional, and social problems. † (Amato, 2005). In conclusion, after viewing these articles, there is much evidence to support the thesis that children from single parent households suffer in comparison to households in which both parents reside with their children. Further topics that should be considered are geographical patterns, as it seemed most of the research was focused at the United States. Another suggestion for the articles would be to gather more personal information from children of single-parent households, rather than cold statistics. The statistics make it easy to dismiss the reason behind the negative results, as opposed to hearing from children who are being raised by single parents to hear how they feel and why they feel they are suffering in certain aspects. Single Parenthood: Literature Review8 The articles did a good job at looking at the different categories including, financial, academic, and emotional issues that stem from single parenting. Out of the articles, Paul Amato (2005) and Sara McLanahan ( 2001). Research available from reputable sources on the topic of single parenthood is limited and its importance as an issue in North American society is diminished as ‘normal’, despite its serious impact shown in said articles. Work Cited Kaufmann, G. (2012, 12). This Week in Poverty: U. S. Single Mothers- ‘The Worst Off'. Moyers ; Company. Retrieved 04, 2013, from http://billmoyers. com/2012/12/24/this-week-in-poverty-us-single-mothers-%E2%80%94-%E2%80%98the-worst-off%E2%80%99/ Amato, P. (2005, 11). The Impact of Family Formation Change on the Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Well-Being of the Next Generation. The Future of Children. Retrieved 04, 2013, from http://futureofchildren. org/publications/journals/article/index. xml? journalid=37 McLanahan, S. (2001, 12). The Consequences of Single Motherhood. The American Prospect. Retrieved 04, 2013, from http://prospect. org/article/consequences-single-motherhoodleid=107 §ionid=690 Paton, G. (2010, 04). Children in Single-Parent Families ‘Worst Behaved'. The Telegraph. Retrieved 10, 2013, from