Profitability of Chinese Commercial Bank-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Determinants of profitability of Chinese commercial banks panel evidence from 2009 to 2016. Answer: Introduction In this chapter, conclusion has been drawn to the current research on determinants of profitability of Chinese commercial banks using the panel evidence from 2009-2016. In the perspective of the bank reforms in China, this research study analyses about whether the present reforms such as participation of foreign banks, bank listing and creation of financial institution adds to profitability of these banks. The profitability of the Chinese commercial banks has been measured by using two research methods that includes- Principal component analysis and Data development analysis (Azam Siddiqui, 2012). Furthermore, the recommendations given in this chapter highlights on the strategy that the Chinese commercial banks would adopt for improving their profitability. The future research reflected in this study includes more internal factors and external factors of banks influencing the profitability of Chinese commercial banks. Conclusion After the global financial crisis, the banking industry in China has been changing at high pace. Although the banks have been commanded to increase their lending to the SMEs as well as the private banks, these banks found it difficult in adjusting and choosing another method to continue their lending to more state owned organizations, local governments and developers of real estate. From the above research analysis and panel data evidence, it can be concluded that the profitability of state-owned commercial banks had increased at higher rate as compared to that of joint- stock commercial banks in this nation. Overall, the efficiency of both these commercial banks improved and the problem of nonperforming loan (NPL) was also solved during this period (2009-2016). The state-owned commercial banks in China not only increased their profitability level and achieved high scale efficiency but also increased their resources for enhancing market competitiveness. In the post-reform period and after GFC, the difference in profitability level as well as efficiency reduced between the state-owned banks and the joint stock banks in China as it was in the pre-reform period (Zheng Zhu, 2013). Even the disposal of NPL in these banks improved their efficiency level in these banks. In addition, the reform in joint equity of the Sate owned banks specifically increased their efficiency rate. The three main principal component analysis that includes ROAA (Return on assets), ROAE (return on equity) and NIM (net interest margin) done in this research concludes that the level of profit margin in both state-owned and joint stock commercial banks in China increased and hence the risk of volatility in these banks also declined. The results of the mean T test done in this research shows that the mean profitability of the state owned commercial banks in China was 0.207 while that of joint stock banks was 0.196. This signifies that the profitability of state owned banks was slightly greater as compared to joint stock banks. However, the financial performance of the joint stock banks was not good as compared to the state owned banks. The correlation analysis in respect of the internal factors of the banks shows that the size of the banks and their profitability were positive but with the equity to asset ratio (ETA), capital adequacy ratio (TIR) and cost to income ratio (CTIR) were negative. This indicates that after the GFC all the internal factors excluding bank size had adverse impact on the banks profitability. It has been founded from the above research study that these commercial banks in China with higher insolvency risk level have higher level of profitability. As a result, the financial performance of these commercial banks improved after the GFC (Tan Floros, 2012). In respect of the macroeconomic factors It has also been concluded from the research study that, the intervention of the government of China also influenced the profitability level of their commercial banks. Both the government and the central bank of China adopted several policies in order to protect their assets and investment by ensuring that they remain profitability (Sufian, F., Habibullah, 2012). Since the commercial banks in China have less fee income, they mainly depends on huge earnings between the deposits and the lending rate. Moreover, as the economy of China entered into the recovery phase, the commercial banks faced huge competition in the market. The commercial banks in this nation then strategized to improve their management as well as innovation capability in order to compete in this business environment. It has been found out from the research study that less concentrated system of banking enhances the profitability level of bank, which basically highlights that the state owned commercial banks have been the actual drag owing to their bank size and their performance. In addition, acceleration in the financial innovation and the diversification strategy reduced risk as well as cost and improved efficiency in these banks (Kanas, Vasiliou Eriotis, 2012). Based on the significance of coefficients and diagnostics, the results indicates that the dependent variable are the economic value added while the NIM as against the ROAE or ROAA. The findings from the study also highlights that the determinant variables did not have uniform impact on all types of banks.. Analogous to the state owned banks counterpart, it has found out that the joint stock commercial banks with increase in credit risk apt to be highly profitable, whereas increase in cost results in lower profitability level of joint stock commercial banks (Gunji Yuan, 2012). As the biggest challenge that faces China is to expand their banking services to all the private businesses, both the state owned as well as joint commercial b anks implemented new technology for improving their services in banking. This in turn facilitated these commercial banks in gaining huge profitability during the period 2009-2016. The external factors including the macro environment and the structure of industry or the level of market concentration also reflects that the banking industry in China have increased their level of profitability (Paradi Zhu, 2013). It had been seen from the research study that the macroeconomic factors including, real GDP growth rate, money supply and the unemployment rate have direct or indirect relationship with the profitability of banks. The results of regression coefficient T-test showed that the coefficient of real GDP growth rate was positive, which signifies that this indicator helped the commercial banks in improving their profitability. As the real GDP growth rate of China began to increase after the GFC, the commercial banks started to lend huge amount of money to the business and this allowed them to charge higher margins and improve their quality of assets (Fung?ov Pessarossi Weill 2013). In fact, the regression coefficient of unemployment rate in China was positive, which indicates that the bank profitability has improved after GFC. Besides this, stable rate of unemployment also stabilized the NPL rate and hence did not adversely influenced the Chinese commercial banks. The regression coefficient of bank money supply in China was negative, which signifies that increase in supply of money was not favorable to the profitability of the joint stock commercial banks. . (Fung?ov, Pessarossi Weill, 2017). Furthermore, it was also found that rise in GDP and decrese in money supply enhanced the profitability of these commercial banks. Recommendations The recommendation is provided to the Chinese government, mangers of banks and the regulatory authority for implementation of new policy for improving bank profitability. These suggestions are explained as under: The banks should recruit skilled employees and also provide proper training to the existing employees in order to increase efficiency of the employees. This in turn will help the state-owned banks to manage the operation effectively in regards to bank size. Both the state-owned and joint stock banks should provide the loan to the customer by over viewing their actual purpose for which they are taking loan. This will help the banks in decreasing the NPL rate. The joint stock commercial banks should engage in diversified activities The Chinese government should support the commercial banks from risk and hence should have higher equity to asset ratio. The Chinese government should also implement proper monetary policy in order to reduce inflation rate in the economy. This is because higher inflation rate adversely affects GDP of economy, which in turn reduces loan demand and decline banks profitability. Limitations of the study As the research study was based on panel data evidence from 2009 to 2016, it has certain limitations that includes- Several problems occurred regarding research design and collection of data As the study was based on divergence between temporal features between the state owned and joint banks, this study was no acquiescent to time effect. Huge difficulty occurred while collecting information about these Chinese commercial banks as it gathered from secondary sources. Collection of information was time consuming Future Work Future Work must be done in accordance to this particular research study that aligns with determinants of profitability of Chinese commercial banks after the GFC (2009-2016). The precise work can be started by utilizing the sample before the GFC in order to discover more accurate results about the difference in profitability level between state-owned and joint stock banks of China. Furthermore, the restraint of time for doing this research should not be limited, so that the researcher can gather more knowledge about the research study and produce correct outcome. References Azam, M., Siddiqui, S. (2012). Domestic and Foreign Banks' Profitability: Differences and Their Determinants.International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues,2(1), 33. Borio, C., Gambacorta, L., Hofmann, B. (2017). The influence of monetary policy on bank profitability.International Finance,20(1), 48-63. Fung?ov, Z., Pessarossi, P., Weill, L. (2013). Is bank competition detrimental to efficiency? Evidence from China.China Economic Review,27, 121-134. Golin, J., Delhaise, P. (2013).The bank credit analysis handbook: a guide for analysts, bankers and investors. John Wiley Sons. Gunji, H., Yuan, Y. (2012). Bank profitability and the bank lending channel: Evidence from China.Journal of Asian Economics,21(2), 129-141. Haslem, J. A., Longbrake, W. (2015). A discriminant analysis of commercial bank profitability. Kanas, A., Vasiliou, D., Eriotis, N. (2012). Revisiting bank profitability: A semi-parametric approach.Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money,22(4), 990-1005. Paradi, J. C., Zhu, H. (2013). A survey on bank branch efficiency and performance research with data envelopment analysis.Omega,41(1), 61-79. Qian, J. Q., Strahan, P. E., Yang, Z. (2015). The impact of incentives and communication costs on information production and use: Evidence from bank lending.The Journal of Finance,70(4), 1457-1493. Sufian, F., Habibullah, M. S. (2012). Globalizations and bank performance in China.Research in International Business and Finance,26(2), 221-239. Tan, Y., Floros, C. (2012). Stock market volatility and bank performance in China.Studies in Economics and Finance,29(3), 211-228. Zheng, Y., Zhu, Y. (2013). Bank lending incentives and firm investment decisions in China.Journal of Multinational Financial Management,23(3), 146-165.

How to Write the Perfect Essay

How to Write the Perfect EssayIf you are struggling with writing the essay, then you are not alone. There are millions of people who struggle with the same exact problem. So I am going to show you a great tip on how to write the perfect essay.The best tip on how to write the perfect essay is actually to have a written plan or template for every section of your essay. So this will help you out by making sure that everything is exactly how you want it to be. Now this is not saying that you have to stick to this template every time you write an essay but it will help you out a lot.One more thing is to make sure that each part of your essay is written in the same way. This is important because it will make it easier to read and it also will make it easier to understand. Make sure that you write in the same type of style and format with each paragraph.Another great tip that can help you out with writing the perfect essay is to make sure that you understand and memorize the first and last paragraphs of the paragraph essay sample. This is very important because it will make things much easier. Then once you understand what is going on make sure that you follow along.Another great tip that you should remember when writing the paragraph essay sample is to stay away from using any kind of advertising or hype in your paragraphs. It is very easy to get caught up in the fast pace of these things and that can cause you a lot of problems in your essay. You should try to keep your thoughts as fresh as possible.A final thing to remember is that you should always try to put your main ideas in the first two or three sentences of your essay. This is because you do not want to spend too much time thinking about your main points and then having to spend so much time explaining them. It will really take away from the main idea of your essay.Also make sure that you are always writing in the correct format when you are writing your essay. There are so many mistakes when people do this and they end up spending a lot of time trying to figure out why they are getting this wrong.Writing the paragraph essay sample is not difficult if you make sure that you know what you are doing. There are a lot of tips that you can learn on how to write a good essay so make sure that you take advantage of them.

Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State Essay Example

Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State Essay This paper will in the first instance define the term, Hollowing Out Of The State, as Rhodes presented it in 1994. The origins of the hollowing out process related to contemporary policy process in Britain will be outlined followed by a summary of the themes and consequences identified by the author. Alternative perspectives on the theme of hollowing out will be contrasted in an attempt to assess the validity of the claim that government in Britain is being hollowed out. In his essay concerning the hollowing out process, Rhodes is concerned with the erosion of British public sector provision within government and the fact that erosion has taken place from within government itself through a process of delegation, decentralisation and privitisation. In order to understand the main themes of hollowing out, it is important to understand the origins and impetus, which created the need for change. Although there is a long history of transition and alteration to the British system of political administration, the contemporary process of hollowing out can be reasonably traced to the election of the New Right government and Mrs. Thatcher in 1979. We will write a custom essay sample on Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer During this period, the institutions of social democracy were under severe pressure throughout the 1970s. Through growing power of pressure groups such as Trade Unions, Internal pressures within the Union from the troubles of Northern Ireland and the failed devolution bill in Scotland. On an international basis, the global economy made a contribution to Britains decline in the shape of soaring interest rates, high inflation and massive government expenditure. Spending by central government in the late 70s rose to approximately 43% of GDP. The country moved toward a position of ungovernability and near bankruptcy. As a consequence, government lost the confidence of the electorate and in these circumstances Mrs. Thatcher was elected in 1979. The Conservative government would embark upon a programme aiming to reduce the interfering role of the Nanny State, cut unnecessary waste, overspending and create the wealth needed to return the country to stability. On taking office, the Conservatives intended to reduce the number of unelected bodies but political circumstance did not permit such a response. Mrs. Thatcher was unable to delegate responsibilities from central to local government because of the latters domination by left wing opponents. One nation ideology prevented the use of devolution whilst the confrontational and disruptive melee of Westminster could also disrupt the progress needed to deliver reform. This meant that to some extent, Mrs. Thatcher was forced to look to quasi government and reform of the civil service in order to enact her programme. The difficulty facing the government during this period is highlighted by Gamble (1994). Success depended upon a party pledged to a New Right agenda first obtaining a mandate to reform in a political market corrupted by decades of state intervention, and then carrying it through with the assistance of agencies of the extended state p39 The mandate for the New Right was given in the general election victory in 1979, allowing Thatcher to initiate a programme to restore the authority of government and expand the agencies of the extended state. It is the consequences of this programme which create the main themes and features of hollowing out. Rhodes provides four trends which characterise the transition which took place; 1. Privitisation and limiting the scope and forms of public intervention. 2. The loss of functions by central and local government departments to alternative service delivery (such as agencys). 3. The loss of functions by British Governments to European Union institutions. 4. Limiting the discretion of public servants through the new public management, with its emphasis on managerial accountability, and sharper distinction between politics and administration. P139 Amongst the principle aims of the Conservative government was stopping the state from being involved in every aspect of peoples lives and to reduce the physical bulk of government. This was done in two ways: firstly, through a programme of privitisation, notable in the form of release from government of major utilities and industries such as Coal, Gas, Shipbuilding, Steel, Electricity and Telecommunications. Secondly, through rationalisation at administrative and operational level involving comprehensive review and the introduction of new management techniques. First of all by reviewing where efficiencies could be made and identifying the areas of government to be reduced or transferred to quasi government and privitisation. Harold Wilsons Labour governments of the 1960s began the process but the Thatcher government brought it into central government and greatly extended it. Areas of departmental responsibility first effected by changes included cleansing and catering. In addition to the effect on central departments, this also reduced the influence and responsibility of local authorities whilst validating cuts in their annual budgets. The role of local authorities were being transformed from that of major employer and service provider to one of overseer and enabler as Rhodes points out, The role of local government is to facilitate the delivery of services by others and oversee performance p241 Further reductions in local authority remit effected departments of Housing, Education, Parks Recreation and Direct Works to name a few, altering their position in the community. Much of the power and responsibility of all government departments was dissipated. Rhodes goes on to explain that, as the government sought to release responsibility internally, the relationship evolving with the European Community proved to be the opposite. It is generally recognised that Britain has been the reluctant member of the European Community over the duration of membership. However, in relation to hollowing out, Europe has the effect of eroding the sovereign powers of the British parliamentary system and contributing to fragmentation of the policy making process across the country. As the major agreements made within the European Union grow in significance towards full integration, the central position of authority of Westminster in continually undermined. In addition, the European Unions commitment to the principle of regional representation through subsiduarity also reduces Westminster as a centre of power. This is evident in the potential for access to new policy networks open to the assemblies of Wales and Scotland as they build recognition of Brussels as equal or superior to London. It could be argued that amongst the most significant changes in the reform process are those related to new managerialism in the civil service which will limit the discretion of public service. These developments were initiated with the appointment of Derek Raynor from industry in order to audit government departments and services. The aim was to reduce costs by pursuing the three Es of efficiency, economy and effectiveness. It would begin the process of moving civil servants from administration of policy to management of implementation. Each department would produce individual plans of action with specific objectives designed to meet targets set in advance. These changes would assist the Thatcher government to politically justify strategy but the failure of reforms to deliver successful results was revealed by the review process in 1988. This would lead to the implementation of the Next Steps Initiative designed to further clarify the separation of policy maker from policy implantation. Rhodes (1997) outlines the critical recommendation of the Efficiency Unit report, stating that The management revolution was only skin- deep and recommended introducing agencies to carry out the executive functions of government and bring about real financial and managerial change p95 This was a crucial point in the process of hollowing out as British governance moved from rationalisation of legitimate responsibility to extended delegation through non-elected and anonymous bodies. With this change in the nature of quasi government, Rhodes raises the question of accountability and control. The development of new agencies to cover an expanding list of government practice caused fragmentation throughout the policy network and difficulties in maintaining adequate channels of communication between relevant actors. Rhodes cites Hesse to illustrate the difficulties arising in this regard, Advocates of decentralised self guidance and control often fail to realise that highly differentiated and pluralistic fragmented institutional systems create a growing need for collective steering, planning and consensus building 146 The Next Steps initiative was taken in response to a lack of success of reform, an imbalance was perceived in the policy process, there was too much emphasis on political issues and not enough on policy implementation. The consequence was the creation of agencies with greater autonomy from government to implement policy outcomes. These agencies needed to be as diverse as the departments they served, covering such aspects as stationary, defense, health, fire safety, coastguard, social security, employment or child support for example. Rather than achieving previously unmet targets, Rhodes argues that the opposite was more likely. The National Health Service for example, has always been at the forefront of government reform. However in recent months the government has entered into agreements with private health care trusts to utilise spare capacity to compensate for continuing overload in the NHS. There are grounds to suggest that the difficulties incurred in 1979 are being incurred in 2000. These difficulties are potentially duplicated across the breadth of the policy network. The lack of adequate measures to ensure communication and co-operation increase innefiency and waste, in addition because the legislative process undertaken has been so complex, the drive for efficiency and cost cutting diminishes the room for maneuver within government departments or ministers. Rhodes highlights the problem as follows; Such networks restrict who contributes to policy making and policy implementation. They routinise the policy process. They are also a form of private government. P148 In the latter point, Rhodes highlights a crucial outcome from the proliferation of agencies, accountability. If responsibility for implementation of government policy is too diverse then accountability and control are confused and disparate. The most notable example of confusion was highlighted by BBC 2s Newsnight, when Jeremy Paxman attempted to clarify the role of Home Secretary Michael Howard in the sacking of Derek Lewis who was Chief Executive of the Prison Service when high profile prisoners escaped from prison. It could be argued that little has changed when observing the recent debacle in the Scottish Executive over the delivery of examination results by the Scottish Qualifications Authority. Resignations have taken place from the agency whilst the minister responsible has moved to a new post. Accountability for politicians have shifted, they no longer resign, instead, they attend select committee hearings. The accountability and control of the policy process from parliament itself has been undermined. Rhodes uses the example of the dissolution of the Greater London Council to illustrate the point, Under the Greater London Council (GLC), rate payers paid their rates to four bodies. After abolition of the GLC, they paid taxes to 17 bodies, two thirds of which are unelected p148 Similar example exists in the case of Strathclyde Regional Council, which was dismantled on ideological grounds but in doing so further weakened democratic accountability. The concluding themes of the hollowing out are concerned with such consequences. The changes made in extending networks beyond the reach of their optimum productivity illustrates a transition from government problem solving, to government as the creator of political crisis. The process moved from necessary rationalisation of overloaded government to the creation of over extended and less controllable quasi government in the form of non-elected agencies. The original measures taken to cut costs and achieve greater efficiencies create the lack of experience and knowledge. Competition for contracts equates to the loss of quality and priorities based upon survival of the fittest. The problem set out in the beginning has not been diminished, as there is still evidence of overload. This is supported by Foster and Plowden (1996) when they state that, Activities have been transferred from local government to centrally appointed and directly appointed bodies, and the creation of arms-length agencies within central government has perversely, involved ministers more in their affairs. And ministers are more directly involved in policy formulation than before p219 Rhodes offers three main reasons behind the argument for a return to bureaucracy as a potential solution to the problems caused by hollowing out. Firstly return to balance rather than fragmentation, secondly, public sector record of delivery is as good as private sector and has better flexibility in meeting problems and challenges and thirdly in order to restore accountability and democracy to the policy process in government. Overall, hollowing out illustrates a process that has created less accountable and less effective, reduced government than previous systems. The difficulties of quasi government outweigh the benefits in terms of the problems which reforms set out to solve. In Rhodes view, the private sector is not the fix all that Mrs. Thatcher in particular said it would be. Beneath the veneer on of the British political landscape, the same issues apply in 2000, which existed in 1979. There are alternative views to the hollowing out process; the following section of this paper will attempt to highlight a selection of key points. Michael Seaward outlines an alternative view of what was arguably the most visable and significant programme undertaken by Mrs. Thatcher and highlighted in hollowing out: Privitisation, Decentralisation and Agencification. The achievements of the Conservative governments programme of privitisation were significant, creating major industries in global markets such as BT in telecommunications for example. However many of the privitised industries have led a much more troubled existence. The British coalfield is almost gone altogether, in recent weeks the lack of progress in the rail privitisation has come to the fore along with those of the water companies. The possibility should be considered that the motivations of the Thatcher privitisations were not only concerned with the difficulties of overload but also with the achievement of ideological change. Nationalisation was strongly associated with party allegiance in Britain; the move toward privitisation would create a fundamental change in the relationship between the electorate and the role of government. This is highlighted by Seaward (1997) when he states that, In majoritarian systems, privitisation may appear to be the hollowing out of the state but this trend can equally be interpreted in terms of core actors rationally reshaping the state to suit some of their primary ends (such as power, autonomy, protection from direct responsibility). P22 Privitisation serves two ends, firstly, to serve to lessen the overload on central government departments and ministers and secondly, to alter the perception of the electorate in relation to the role of government. Similarly, decentralisation as it is presented in the hollowing out does not appear to consider the consequences of an approach concerned with ideological change. The avoidance or negation of local authority responsibility was concerned with the confrontation of opposition as much as it was an attempt to reallocate resources and services. The transfer of responsibilities not only decreased the bulk of government but also dismantled a significant vehicle for the adversaries of the Thatcher project. This is also supported by Seaward (1997) when he cites King: The aim of these reforms is to marginalise local government as a political institution by creating local agencies to deliver policy and by denuding its representative function. P23 On the final theme of Agencification, Seaward focuss on the scope for interpretation of reform and the importance of the role of the minister in policy process rather than bureaucratic administration. When this separation was attempted, clear roles were identified for the politicians as representative, the civil servant or department as administrator and the arms length agency in the delivery mode of policy implementation In terms of Britains role within the European Community, the case for the loss of sovereignty is a strong one. There is general agreement concerning the potential for Westminster to become secondary to the dealings of Brussels and its policy networks, as Gray (2000) confirms, In the case of increasing European Union involvement in the internal affairs of the state imply not so much a hollowing out of the state as an effective by pass of it altogether in some areas of policy and administration. The extension of qualified majority voting in the council of ministers extends the possibility of being by passed. P228 Once again this view is correct from a particular perspective but does not take into account the interdependence of the European Union at its centre with the member organisations, which give it life. Britain enters into negotiation with all other partners and retains the power of veto in important areas. Once again a consideration of ideological preference is necessary. This is evident in the Labour governments moves toward partial incorporation in the social charter which was resisted throughout the life of the Conservative government. In terms of the administration of government, all issues in either Brussels or London do not effect each institution in equal measure. Rather than Europe swamping or negating British government, there is an argument for mutual accommodation, illustrated by Smith (1999), Departments have attempted to integrate the EU throughout the department rather than concentrate it within a European co-ordination body as used to be the case. P242 The description of the hollowing out of the state, might better read as the redistribution of parliament and within the policy network, the restructuring of design, administration, delivery, evaluation and financing of the policy process. The arguments for and against the hollowing out process are strongly influenced by the perspective of the observer, the interpretations of the state and its mechanisms. After all of the change which has been undertaken on an economic or strategic basis, an interventionist government still presides over all in Britain and the bulk of government has not decreased. This view is supported by Smith (1999) when he states that, The government has continued to regulate the privitised monopolies, there has been little reduction in the level of public expenditure, and it has intervened greatly in the reforms of health and education, (Richardson, 1993). In other words, the state has been reshaped rather than hollowed out. P205 Here is the crux of the issue; much of the bulk of government, which was, portrayed as such a danger by Mrs. Thatcher in 1979 remains largely intact. Privitisation and quangocracies have not lessened the extent of government; rather they have helped to dismantle it to be put back together in a different order. This is evident in the move to the centre, if not the right of the political spectrum by the Labour Party in order to regain power. It could be argued that Mrs. Thatcher failed in her political aims of reduced government and strong state but was highly successful in her attempt to alter the ideological perspective of the British political landscape. She has ensured that the devide between the pragmatic actions of the conservatives and the collective actions of the socialists has been drastically reduced. The determining factor in this change is leadership and this is supported by Smith (1999) when he states that, leaders often have legitimacy, and the electoral and parliamentary support, to take to take authoritative decisions and therefor to orient the policy directions of networks p243 The conclusion of this paper is that bearing in mind, the significance of an ideological origin to the process, there is strong evidence that the hollowing out of the state has and is continuing to take place. However it is doing so in conjunction with the restructuring of parliamentary structure and continuous adjustment of the actors and responses within the policy network. Only in this fuller sense can the hollowing out of the state be applied to the evolution of the policy process in Britain. What has remained constant or grown in strength throughout this process are the executors of power in the core of government. Although lines of accountability remain, the likelihood of recrimination for wrongdoing has become more unlikely and this is a cause for concern for the future. Both the hollowing out of the state and the strengthening of the core executive remain a matter of ongoing process.

Use a Function as a Parameter in Another Function

Use a Function as a Parameter in Another Function In Delphi, procedural types (method pointers) allow you to treat procedures and functions as values that can be assigned to variables or passed to other procedures and functions. Heres how to call a function (or procedure) as a parameter of another function (or procedure) : Declare the function (or procedure) that will be used as a parameter. In the example below, this is TFunctionParameter.Define a function that will accept another function as a parameter. In the example below this is DynamicFunction type   Ã‚   TFunctionParameter function(const value : integer) : string;...function One(const value : integer) : string;begin   Ã‚   result : IntToStr(value) ; end;function Two(const value : integer) : string;begin   Ã‚   result : IntToStr(2 * value) ; end;function DynamicFunction(f : TFunctionParameter) : string;begin   Ã‚   result : f(2006) ; end;...//Example usage: var   Ã‚   s : string; begin   Ã‚   s : DynamicFunction(One) ;   Ã‚   ShowMessage(s) ; //will display 2006   Ã‚   s : DynamicFunction(Two) ;   Ã‚   ShowMessage(s) ; // will display 4012end; Important Notes Of course, you decide on the signature of the TFunctionParameter: whether it is a procedure or a function, how many parameters does it take, etc.If TFunctionParameter is a method (of an instance object) you need to add the words of object to the procedural type name, as in:TFunctionParameter function(const value : integer) : string of object;If you expect nil to be specified as the f parameter, you should test for this using the Assigned function.Fixing the Incompatible type: method pointer and regular procedure

Transportation Travel behavior Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Transportation Travel behavior - Research Paper Example The current paper focuses on the examination of the various aspects of travel behavior in transportation. Emphasis is laid on the potential use of theories developed in psychology for explaining travel attitudes. There are two key issues that have been explored through this study: a) whether travel attitudes can be measured effectively by employing theories common in psychology and b) whether psychologists support the value of travel attitude in estimating the level of travel demand, as developed in a particular market. The interaction between travel behavior and psychology is analytically explained in this study and appropriate examples are provided, where available, in order to show the role of psychology in understanding and measuring travel attitude. The methodology adopted is based on literature review. Studies published in academic literature especially journals have been used for explaining the issues. Material from books has been used to supplement the information available. Headings and sub-headings have been used with the objective of making the paper easier to be read; identification of potential gaps and arriving at suggestions of an effective solution. While developing the research in regard to the issues mentioned above the following fact is made clear: travel demand is not standardized worldwide. For this reason, the studies published in this field cannot fully substantiate the needs of the paper, in terms of research. The use of books has been considered as necessary for completing gaps that have not been covered through journals. However, omitting journals as a resource would be a mistake since the journals are mainly based on empirical research. Therefore, the combination of journal and books is considered as critical for answering the questions set in this paper. Particular reference should be made to the following fact: the studies available for examining this paper’s issues are rather limited; it is for this reason that books have be en identified along so that the credibility of the study is not threatened. 2. Transportation - Travel Behavior & Travel Attitude 2.1 Travel Behavior Starting with a brief introduction of travel behavior, travel behavior involves methods of modeling and analyzing travel demand by using analytical techniques and theories derived from various fields (Goulias, 2000)1. It is well established that under the influence of different factors individuals do not behave in an identical manner and the same holds true for their travel behaviors also. Some of the factors that play a role in influencing decision making and travel behavior are time constraints, use of space, economic considerations and the stage of life at which an individual is. Travel behavior involves study of how people use space and transportation. Travel attitude is a concept that is closely related to socio-psychology. In fact, travel attitude, as a behavioral characteristic of an individual can be fully explained using theor ies and concepts applied in psychology, and has been analyzed in detail in sections below. In this context, the

HR challenges in managing a network of high-class cafes in the United Dissertation

HR challenges in managing a network of high-class cafes in the United Kingdom - Dissertation Example It is evident from the study that unlike any other business type, in its essence hospitality business is largely dominated by human resources (HR) over any other aspect of the business. In other words, people, working in a hospitality organisation, create success of their organisation by their actions and decision. Provision of quality service is the main goal of any hospitality organisation, as service is the main product that organisations sell. At the same time, hospitality concerns service that is not mechanical, but rather human-made, hence HR Management is a definitive factor in delivering quality. In general, hospitality service is created, maintained and supplied by humans at all stages of operation, and the right HR policy is a definitive factor in this industry. All stages are equally important and provide equal contribution towards delivering quality service and hence profit. However, the degree of importance of HR is significantly higher outside the profit objectives â₠¬â€œ a right HR policy makes a business favourable to work in if we look at this from employee perspective; and also to be a customer if we consider this from consumer’s perspective. This is why HR aspect in hospitality appears as one of the most significant investments that often get overlooked or underestimated. Another significant issue in this dissertation will concern quality control. It is unclear at first glance what defines quality and the dissertation will thus analyse the crucial factors defining quality specifically for our type of business. Providing for the right interpretation and understanding of quality will be an essential component for an appropriate assessment of an HR policy. One of the most significant challenges this dissertation is going to analyse is the motivation of employees within cafe business. It is apparent that majority of hospitality industry employees consider their workplace as a temporary solution to earn money or receive some experience in non-home country. Clearly a fraction of people working in this sector are looking to develop themselves as professionals and consider working in a cafe as a worthy professional career. Motivation is the most significant challenge for most employers in this sector, and it happens that high percentages of people are getting withdrawn for being below the required work standard. High staff turnover in cafe industry is also the major concern for most business owners and there are a number of reasons for this. According to Mehta (2005), â€Å"once employed, a fifty percent chance exists that any given employee will leave their job within a year†. The first reason was mentioned above as the minimised potential dedication to work from employees. Secondly, according to Directgov website, over 70% of current workforce in the restaurant and hospitality sector is foreign citizens attracted by a high living wage of ?7.85 per hour in London. Their term of stay at one workplace is often li mited by their visa term, or other immigration obstacles, as well as the desire to experience different jobs during

Linguistics Psychology Contribution to Language Teaching

Linguistics Psychology Contribution to Language Teaching THE CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS AND PSYCHOLOGY TO LANGUAGE TEACHING Since the beginning of the 20th century investigations in the fields of psychology and lingusitics have paved the way to new concepts of language teaching. On the basis the acquired empirical evidence, linguists, researchers and scholars have developed certain methods to improve the process of child and adult language acquisition. According to Stern (1992), â€Å"One of the main features of the development of language pedagogy has been the continuous attempt to renew language teaching through changes in teaching methods† (p.6). To a great extent, these new approaches â€Å"have reflected changes in theories of the nature of language and of language learning† (Richards Rodgers, 2001 p.1). The aim of this essay is to analyse the impact of linguistics and psychology on language teaching; such an analysis has been a topic of increasing importance over the last years, as the recent reforms and educational standards are considerably based on both disciplines. These reforms a re introduced to account for individual differences of language learners and to diversify the process of language acquisition. Although many language teachers take psychology and linguistics courses in universities, only some of them can effectively apply their knowledge of psychology and linguisitics to language teaching. This inconsistency can be explained by two key factors: firstly, there are many controversies in research findings and, secondly, the received results are not tested within the classroom environment. Thus, the role of a modern language teacher is to fill the gaps between theoretical assumptions of linguists or psychologists and practical usage. Linguistics as a discipline investigates the structure of language and different processes of language acquisition. The gradual shift from structural to generative linguistics reveals the linguists’ attempts to establish a new taxonomy for language teaching. Structural linguisitics initiated by Ferdinand de Saussure (1966) at the beginning of the 20th century delves deeply into word forms and their meanings. In Brown’s (1980) viewpoint, â€Å"Structural linguistics had provided tools for dissecting language into its smallest parts and for contrasting two languages† (p.242). This school of linguistics is more interested in modern speech patterns rather than in diachronic language changes. Withdrawing from the traditional historical-descriptive analysis, structural linguistics (together with behaviouristic psychology) has challenged the efficacy of the Grammar-translation method and has generated the emergence of the Audio-Lingual Method. As Larsen-Freeman (1986) s tates, the Grammar-Translation Method prevailed in language teaching up to the middle of the 20th century. This method provides learners with an opportunity to acquire grammar and vocabulary skills; however, this is not the case with communicative skills. The fact is that the Grammar-Translation Method â€Å"views language learning as consisting of little more than memorising rules and facts† (Richards Rodgers, 2001 p.5). In light of this, the method satisfies the needs of those learners who perform standardised tests or translations, but it is inappropriate for those learners who want to speak a foreign language. In contrast to the Grammar-Translation Method, the Audio-Lingual Approach puts major focus on continual repetition of different language patterns and listening. Applying this method to language teaching, educators help learners recognise phrasal verbs and other language structures that were fully neglected in the Grammar-Translation Method. The obvious advantage of the Audio-Lingual Approach is that error correction is reduced, while motivation of learners is increased. In this approach, as Stern (2001) points out, imitation of speech is more crucial than understanding of the meaning. Although the Audio-Lingual Approach is certainly more effective for the formation of learners’ linguistic competence than the Grammar-Translation Method, it is unsuitable for the formation of learners’ communicative competence. However, in the Total Physical Response Approach proposed by Asher (1969) more heed is paid to learners’ comunicative competence. Integrating the concepts of structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology into his approach, Asher (1969) implies that both the first and second language is easily acquired if the balance between action and speech is achieved. Unlike structural linguistics, generative/transformational linguistics proposed by Noam Chomsky (1966) deals with the analysis of learners’ unconscious cognition rather than with the language production. In other words, generative linguistics specifies that there are certain natural rules with the help of which a learner constructs sentences. In the 1960-1980s the Natural Approach emerged on the basis of the concepts proposed by Chomsky (1966) and Krashen and Terrell (1983). According to Krashen and Terrell (1983), both children and adults use their innate LADs (Language Acquisition Devices) in the process of language learning. But unlike children, adults possess problem-solving skills that allow them to acquire language in conscious and unconscious ways. Two important conclusions can be drawn from theoretical assumptions of Krashen and Terrell (1983): firstly, in childhood a language is acquired, in adulthood it is learned; secondly, communication is the major element of adul t language learning. Psychology as a discipline examines the functions of the human mind and their relation to human behaviour. The move from behaviouristic to cognitive psychology in the middle of the 20th century signifies that psychologists became interested in scientific research and analyses of intellectual processes. Behaviouristic psychology supported by Skinner (1984) adheres to the idea that language teaching should be based on observations of learners’ behaviours rather than on the examination of inner factors. Seen from this viewpoint, the process of language teaching occurs under the constant control of a teacher with the minimal use of reinforcement strategies. While the behaviouristic school of psychology has inspired the use of computer-based materials in language teaching, the cognitive school of psychology has generated the spread of discovery learning programs. Cognitive psychology has contributed much to the spread of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach supported by Wid dowson (1978) and the Silent Way Approach proposed by Gattegno (1976). Special attention in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach is given to interaction, communication in a foreign language and use of authentic reading materials (Nunan, 1991). Taking into account the research on human cognition, the Silent Way Approach has changed the direction of language teaching. This approach allows learners to devise their own language hypotheses and verify their validity in practice. Unquestionably, the Silent Way Approach shapes learners’ freedom of thought and helps them â€Å"develop their own inner criteria for correctness† (Larsen-Freeman, 1986 p.62). As communication in the Silent Way Approach and the Communicative Language Teaching Approach occurs in the target language, learners’ communicative skills are formed in a rapid pace. Contrary to the Grammar-Translation Method, these approaches pay much attention to phonetics and phonology and introduce different â€Å"problem-solving activities† (Richards Rodgers, 2001 p.27). While in the Grammar-Translation Method many parallels are drawn between the native language and the target language, such parallels are not employed in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach and other recent methods. The idea of communicative competence is the core principle of other emerged methods, in particular, the Community Language Learning Method and the Suggestopaedia. These approaches reveal inconsistencies of prior methods, implying that there is a close connection between language and context. The Community Language Learning Method is quite popular in today’s language teaching due to its learner-oriented ethics. The Suggestopedia Approach concentrates on relaxation as an integral part of successful language acquisition; the widespread activity of this approach is listening to music during language lessons. Overall, all methods that have been developed under the impact of linguistics and psychology highlight group working and the use of individual approaches to every learner. Group working shapes learners’ communicative skills and problem-solving abilities; individual approaches are crucial for the formation of learners’ identities and recognition of factors that af fect language acquisition. Many variables are juxtaposed in culturally or socially diverse learning environment; hence, individual approaches allow to reveal all obstacles to language learning. Linguisitics and psychology have demonstrated that the principal goal of any teaching method is to help learners use a language in everyday situations and in different settings rather than construct gramatically-correct utterances. The Task-Based Language Teaching Approach is developed for these specific purposes. Designing versatile tasks, an educator teaches language learners to respond flexibly to the given activity and co-operate with peers. As the essay suggests, linguistics and psychology have significantly reinforced the need for efficient teaching methods. Under the impact of these disciplines, language teachers have started to experiment with approaches, making an attempt to reconcile theory with practice. The structural school of linguistics has provided educators with valuable insights on the process of language acquisition. The generative school of linguistics has revealed that language acquisition in children occurs on an unconscious level, while language acquisition in adults occurs on both conscious and unconscious levels. The behaviouristic school of psychology has reduced the importance of meaning in language acquisition, but has stimulated the implementation of computers in schools and universitites. The cognitive school of psychology has rejected settled opinions and has defined the concepts that are successfully used in teaching culturally diverse learners. Taken together, linguistics and psychology have revealed that different methods should be used in language teaching, methods that integrate such techniques as reinforcement, individual approaches and communication (Kumaravadivelu, 2003). As new teaching methods came to the fore, the role of an educator in language teaching was changed. In the Audio-Lingual Method, the Suggestopedia or the Natural Approach a teacher is treated as an instructor; contrariwise, in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach or the Community Language Learning a teacher is an assistant to language learners. Bibliography Asher, J. J. (1969) ‘The Total Physical Response Approach to Second Language Learning’. The Modern Language Journal, 53 (1), 3-17. Brown, H. D. (1980). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall Regents. Chomsky, N. (1966) Topics in the theory of generative grammar. The Hague: Mouton. Gattegno, C. (1976) The Common sense of teaching foreign languages. New York: Educational Solutions Inc. Krashen, S. Terrell, T. (1983) The Natural Approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003) Beyond methods: Macrostrategies for language teaching. New Haven, C. T.: Yale University Press. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986) Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York: Oxford University Press. Nunan, D. (1991) Language teaching methodology: A textbook for teachers. London: Prentice Hall International. Richards, J. C. Rodgers, T. S. (2001) Approaches and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. Saussure, F. de (1966) Course in General Linguistics. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Skinner, B. F. (1984) ‘The operational analysis of psychological terms’. Behavioural and brain sciences, 7 (4), 547-581. Stern, H. (1992) Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stern, H. (2001) Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H. G. (1978) Teaching language as communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press.